Church History can be and should be read as a story for that is exactly what it is.
In this research, “the characteristics of the Christian Piety” is the element which will be followed. It will not be followed through the whole story of the church. It will be followed according to, only, two of the Early Fathers of the church. The first Father is St. Polycarp, the Bishop of Smyrna. Polycarp is from the Apostolic Fathers’ period and he martyred in the second century. The second Father is St. Macarius the Egyptian, one of the Desert Fathers, lived in the forth century (300-390). The research will follow the main, or the major, Characteristics of the Christian Piety according to these two Early Fathers.
First, the research will follow the main characteristics of the Christian Piety according to St. Polycarp through an analytical reading for two primary texts belonging to him. These two texts are “The Martyrdom of Polycarp”[3] and “The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians”[4]. Second, the research will follow the main characteristics of the Christian Piety according to St. Macarius the Egyptian through an analytical reading for eight of his famous fifty homilies[5]. These eight homilies were selected, in this research, because they are expressing various subjects[6]. Also one of these eight, (Homily 15), is considered as the longest homily among the fifty homilies. And another selected homily, (Homily39), is considered as the shortest one. The selected homilies are (Homily 11[7], Homily12[8], Homily15[9], Homily 17[10], Homily 21[11], Homily 32[12], Homily 39[13] and Homily 48[14])
After the analytical reading for the selected texts, according to St. Polycarp and St. Macarius, the research will follow the similarities and the differences between the main characteristics of the two kinds of Piety. Also, it will be shown, if any development occurred for the same characteristic of Piety from St. Polycarp to St. Macarius. Then a brief conclusion will follow.
The analytical reading to “The Martyrdom of Polycarp” and “The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians” shows some major characteristics of Christian Piety according to St. Polycarp, it can be mentioned as followed:
1- Imitation:
Imitation takes two directions, imitation of Christ and imitation of Martyrs and disciples, “Polycarp waited to be betrayed, as also did the Lord, that we in turn might imitate him…” (M.p.1:2)[15]. It is closed to what Paul wrote to the Corinthians “Imitate me, just as I also imitate Christ.” (1Cor11:1). Imitation is not only because of the martyrdom, but also because of the way of life “For he (Polycarp) was adorned with every good thing because of his exemplary way of life.” (M.p.13:2).
Imitation of Christ according to the martyrdom of Polycarp includes even the details of his death. For example, Polycarp waited to be betrayed like Jesus. Also, he prayed before his martyrdom and he asked that God’s will be done. It is mentioned that who arrested Polycarp, his name was Herod. And “those who betrayed him might suffer the punishment of Judas himself” (M.p.6:2). So, “Every one longs to imitate his martyrdom, since it occurred in conformity with the gospel of Christ” (M.p.19:1) and “May we be found to have followed in his footsteps in the kingdom of Jesus Christ” (M.p.22:1). Also, we can notice the same two directions of imitation when Polycarp wrote to the Philippians to be imitators of Jesus’ patience (Ph.p.8)[16], to “follow the example of the Lord” (Ph.p.10) and to imitate the way of life of the saints like Ignatius, Zosimus and Rufus (Ph.p.9).
2- Martyrdom:
The martyrdoms “have occurred according to the will of God”(M.p.2:1). The martyrs are “partners with Christ” (M.p.6:2). It is honor to be with the martyrs (Ph.p1). There is a clear distinction between worshiping Jesus and loving the martyrs “…For we worship this one who is the son of God, but we love the martyrs as disciples and imitators of the Lord” (M.p.17:3). Also, “we don’t praise those who hand them-selves over, since this is not what the gospel teaches” (M.p.4)
3- Serving God:
“For eighty- six years I have served Him, and He has done me no wrong…” (M.p.9:3), this sentence is considered as the most famous sentence by Polycarp. It shows how he spent his life serving God. It is very important to “serve the Lord in fear” (Ph.p.2) and “with all reverence… as He has commanded us…” (Ph.p.6)
4- Studying the Bible:
This characteristic can be noticed from the number of the Biblical quotations that Polycarp quoted in his epistle to the Philippians. He quoted more than 38 quotations; some of them are in a direct way while the others are indirect. Also, Polycarp advised the Philippians to “study carefully” (Ph.p.3) the epistle which Paul wrote to them. And he trusted “that they are well versed in the Sacred Scriptures” (Ph.p.12)
5- Praying and fasting:
We have to be “watching unto prayer… and persevering in fasting…” (Ph.p.7). Also, we have to pray for all the saints and for the rulers (Ph.p.12). Praying for the enemies and for those who hate us can make us “Perfect in Him” (Ph.p.12). Polycarp lived the life of prayer. In the days before his martyrdom, he spent “night and day doing nothing but pray for everyone…” (M.p.5:1). When they came to take him, “He asked them for an hour to pray without being disturbed” (M.p.7:2). Even when he was in the stadium, minutes before his death, he was “looking up into heaven” (M.p.14:1) and praying.
6- Spiritual warfare:
The devil tries to force the Christians to deny Jesus to be able to flee from the martyrdom. He “might force them to make a denial through continuous torment” (M.p.2:4). The devil is the “jealous and envious Evil One, the enemy of the race of the upright” (M.p.17: 1).
7- Giving:
Polycarp wrote to the Philippians to “not neglecting a widow or an orphan or a poor man” (Ph.p.6). Polycarp was giving even to those who came to arrest him “Straight away he ordered them to be given everything they wanted to eat and drink” (M.p.7:2)
8- The mystical life[17] and the supernatural signs and wonders:
Three days before Polycarp was arrested “while praying, he had a vision” and he gave those who were with him the interpretation (M.p.5:2), “He said prophetically…I must be burned alive” (M.p.12:3). While he was praying, the grace of God filled him (M.p.7:3). And when he entered the stadium where he martyred “a voice came to him from heaven: Be strong Polycarp and be a man” (M.p.9:1). When he was talking in the stadium “he was filled with courage and joy, and his face was full of grace” (M.p.12:1). Also, it is mentioned in the text[18] that “on the day and hour that Polycarp was martyred in Smyrna, Irenaeus…heard a voice like trumpet saying, Polycarp has been martyred.”
9- The Eschatological belief:
There is a “resurrection of eternal life in both soul and body” (M.p.14:2). Christ will Judge the living and the dead. (Ph.p.2). “we must all appear at the judgment-seat of Christ, and must every one give an account of himself” (Ph.p.6). The martyrs of Christ “kept their eyes on the goal of escaping the fire that is eternal” (M.p.2:3). This fire is “the fire of the coming judgment and eternal torment” (M.p.11:2). By their martyrdom “in one hour purchasing for themselves eternal life” (M.p.2:3). And their resurrection will be “in the immortality of the Holy Spirit” (M.p.14:2). They will gain “the crown of immortality” (M.p.17:1, 19:2).
10- The Church:
The church of God is “temporary residents everywhere” (M. Intro.). Polycarp was caring about the local church. He wrote to the church in Philippi many commands to advise different kinds of people. He advised wives, widows, deacons, younger men and the virgins (Ph.p.4, 5). Also, Polycarp was thinking about the church, and was praying for the church, as a “universal church” (M. Intro., 8:1).
11- Relationship with the rulers: We have to honor the rulers (M.p.10:2) and pray for them (Ph.p.12).
12- Clear belief in Trinity[19]: The texts show a very clear belief in Trinity (M.p.14:1, 2, p.22:1, 3).
II. The characteristics of Christian Piety according to St. Macarius:
Through the analytical reading for the selected eight homilies by St. Macarius, some major characteristics can be noticed as followed:
1. Restoration of the Divine Image:
Adam was created in “the image and likeness of God”, but this image was corrupted by sin (12:1)[20]. The soul lost her image and because of Adam’s disobedience, “death reigned over every soul, and defaced every image of Adam” (11:4, 5). Through Christ’s work, this “Heavenly image” (11:6) can be restored. This image was representing the “state of Purity” (15:25). Also, it was representing Adam’s authority over the creatures. Through Christ’s work “Adam may again be king over death and lord of the creatures” (11:6)[21].
Restoration of the Devine image can be obtained in this life, at least in a primitive way, by the work of the Holy Spirit, so the souls can “regaining its proper nature” (17:3). When Adam was in this Devine image, the Word Himself was his clothing and he had an “outward glory with him” (12:6, 7). The Christians who obtain this heavenly raiment now, in this age, clothed their souls; the same raiment will clothe their bodies (glorification) in the coming age (32:2).
2. Deification and Christian Perfection:
Christian perfection, deification (15:35), or communion with the heavenly nature (32:6) is the aim of the Christian life. Perfect Christians are those “who have permitted…to come very near the King”, they are “sons, and lords, and gods” (17:1). Sometimes, Macarius called them saints who are cleaned and sanctified in the inner man (17:13).
Loving God seems to be the first step to experiencing the Christian perfection. If a man loves God and gives himself to God, this man can reach the pure love, pure prayer and all that he does may be purely done (15:22). The purity of the heart can be gained through only one way; through Him who was crucified for us (17:15). According to Macarius, the incarnation of the Word is the cause of humans’ deification. Because of the incarnation, the heavenly Spirit entered in the humanity and brought Adam “into combination with the God-head” (11:9). In Christ, the humanity can be deified because it is given to be “partakers of the Spirit of Christ” (15:4) and in “His substance” (15:38).
The Apostles were being perfect (17:7). The Christian perfection is gained “bit by bit” (15:7) and the work of cleansing should be done “little by little” (17:11). Those perfect Christians may be excluded from this kind of life, if they despite the Grace of the Spirit (15:4). The main purpose of the Bible is to teach us to be “partakers of the divine nature” (39).
3. The mystical life and the supernatural signs and wonders:
Christ is the “heavenly Bridegroom” who has espoused the soul for “mystical Divine fellowship” (15:2). “For the soul was fitted for communion with the heavenly Bridegroom, and mingles with the heavenly One” (12:15). The service of the Spirit is performed “secretly by the inner man” (15:5). The Holy Ghost writes the “mysteries of heaven” upon the tables of the heart (15:20). Visions occur sometimes during the prayer (15:5). Also, to be caught away into the coming age is an experience that can be occurred (17:4). Macarius wrote about one of the brothers who was taken captive by Divine power, caught away and saw the city of Jerusalem (17:14).
In homily 48, Macarius wrote to the monks about divine healing. Christ is the “only true physician and healer”. The monk has to believe that Christ can heal his body as He healed his soul. This is the true belief. The “earthly physicians” are for “those who could not yet entrust themselves wholly to God”.
4. The personal experience with the Holy Spirit:
To receive “The gift of the Spirit”, we have to raise our eyes for the heavenly things (11:6). Also, we have to love God, leave all things and preserve in prayer. When we do these things, the Holy Ghost begins to teach us the secrets (12:17). The power of the Holy Spirit is working like a fire, Macarius called this power “heavenly fire of the Godhead” and “Divine fire” (11:1, 2). This Divine fire has two main works inside the faithful souls. The first work is belonging to this age. In this age the fire forms, in secret, the “heavenly image upon their humanity” (11:2). The heavenly fire forms this image by clearing off the thorns and sanctifying the soul (15:53). The Divine fire’s second work is belonging to the coming age. In the coming age, the fire will cause the resurrection (11:1).
5. Spiritual warfare:
“A Christian has a twofold warfare set before him, an inward and outward…” (21: Intro.). The outward warfare is visible, in this kind of warfare; the Christian has to fight to not be bound down by the affairs of this life or by the love of the world (21:2). According to Macarius, selling what we have and distributing it to the poor is a very effective way to win these kinds of wars (11:7). Regarding the inward warfare, it is an invisible warfare. This invisible warfare has two directions. The first is against “the spirits of wickedness themselves” (21:1). And the second is against the indwelling evil which inside the heart, every Christian has “to fight” against this evil (15:24). This indwelling evil produces evil thoughts. Everyone has to discover these thoughts. The Holy Spirit is the “Divine Lamp” who helps us to discern these thoughts and to “win the battle” (11:3).
6. The Eschatological belief:
“In the resurrection all the members (of the body) will raised up” (15:10). For the Christian, the fire of the Godhead will cause this resurrection (11:1). Christ will Judge all in “the day of judgment”. Some will go to be with Him and some will go to the “eternal fire”(12:13). As the body of the Lord was glorified on the mountain of transfiguration, the bodies of the saints will glorify and will shine like lightning (15:38). “Christians will reign to ages without end with Christ” (15:31). Because He calls us to “a holy city which is ever at peace” and to “the life that never dies” (11:15)
7. Praying and fasting:
When we love God with all of our souls, we can experience the “Pure prayer” (15:22). The pure prayer is this prayer when the mind is “wholly occupied with the Lord” (15:13). In this kind of prayer, the mind enters into rest, and may experience vision and knows the Divine mysteries (15:15). This level of prayer seems to be, according to Macarius, a heavenly gift “a gift of prayer” (17:5). By praying and fasting with faith, we will be able to fight and have victory in our battles (21:5).
8. Giving:
Giving is very important according to St. Macarius, he repeated the command to sell everything and distribute to the poor (11:7, 8).[22]
9. Using the Scripture:
St. Macarius quoted more than ninety quotations in these selected eight homilies. His quotations vary from the New and the Old Testaments. In homily 39, the shortest homily among the fifty, Macarius shows that God sent to us the Holy Scriptures as His letter. The main purpose of this letter is to declare that we need to pray to receive the “heavenly gift of the substance of His Godhead; for it is written, that we should be made partakers of the divine nature”.
10. Clear belief in Trinity:
All of the selected homilies’ ends show a very clear belief in Trinity; Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
III. Similarities and Differences
a- Similarities:
By comparing the two types of Christian Piety, it can be noticed that there are some characteristics which are the same due to St Polycarp and due to St. Macarius. For example, the clear belief in Trinity, fasting, giving, studying and using the Scripture are very similar according to the two Early Fathers. There are also some characteristics sharing the same basic thoughts with some developments according to Macarius. The general ideas about the coming age and the basic thoughts about imitation of Christ can be considered as two examples for this kind of developing characteristics. These developments will be discussed in the last part of this research.
b- Differences:
i. The focus of the two types of Piety :
The type of Christian Piety according to St. Polycarp focuses on the experience of the life of the whole church as a community. The type according to St. Macarius focuses on the personal experience. These two different perspectives affect many characteristics of the two kinds of piety. By following the texts, it can be noticed that the idea of the church itself takes a great position in the texts belonging to Polycarp. But it occurs rarely in the fifty Homilies[23]. In the selected eight homilies, we can find a very significant definition that Macarius gave for the church. Macarius mentioned in homily 12 that “the word (church) is used of the individual soul, as well as of many; for the soul gathers together all her faculties and is thus a church to God” (12:15). This definition reflects the focus of this kind of Piety, as a personal focus, even with the issue of the church.
ii. How to understand the aim of the spiritual warfare:
Spiritual warfare can also be considered as an issue that reflects these different perspectives. According to the texts belonging to Polycarp, the aim of the spiritual warfare is to make the Christians deny Christ, to escape from martyrdom. Every Christian has to win this warfare not only to keep his faith (personal focus) but also to help the other Christians to continue keeping their faith (church focus). Polycarp won the battle, did not deny Jesus and martyred to give an example which helps the whole church to follow his footsteps. According to Macarius, spiritual warfare focuses on the personal experience. Satan aims to prevent the Christian from reaching Christian perfection.
iii. The peak of the Christian experience for the supernatural signs:
According to the two texts belonging to Polycarp, Martyrdom seems to be the peak of the Christian experience for the supernatural wonders and signs. There isn’t any mention of this kind of experience in the epistle to the Philippians. Only, in the Martyrdom of Polycarp, this kind of experience can be found. According to Macarius, this kind of experience occurs in the regular life of the perfect Christians. The prayer life seems to be the peak of the Christian experience for the supernatural wonders and signs. Visions, being in the spiritual realm, mystic experiences and divine healing are factors that appear many times in Macarius’ homilies.
IV. Developments
a- From Imitation: to Restoration of the Divine image:
As shown previously, Imitation is one of the main characteristics of Christian Piety according to Polycarp. Due to the Martyrdom of Polycarp and due to his epistle to the Philippians, imitation of Christ or imitation of martyrs and disciples can be fulfilled by following their type of life. In other words, the process of imitation can be defined as a process which is occurred when a Christian lives due to the example of Christ or martyrs. When a Christian lives and acts like Christ, he becomes an imitator of Christ. This kind of imitation can be found even in the details of the martyrdom.
Surely, Polycarp’s type of imitation is a Biblical type which Macarius also kept it. Although Macarius kept this type, he understood the way to be an imitator in a different way. For Macarius, the process of being an imitator of Christ is not only by living in diligence to follow Christ’s way of life, but also it is a mystical process. In this mystical process, the soul restores the heavenly image by being in a deep mystical relationship with the bridegroom. This mystical process is occurred by the work of the Holy Spirit who copies and restores the heavenly image. By restoring this first heavenly image, the soul becomes like Christ, so the soul will act and live like Him. Briefly, Polycarp’s type can be summarized in “To act and live like Christ will make you an imitator of Christ”. Macarius’ type developed in what can be summarized in “The Holy Spirit makes you an imitator of Christ by copying Christ’s image on you in the mystic relation, so you can act like Christ”.
b- From believing in the coming age: to tasting the coming age now:
As shown previously, the eschatological belief is one of the main characteristics of Christian Piety according to both, Polycarp and Macarius. Macarius, in addition to the common eschatological belief, wrote that the perfect Christians can taste from now the coming age. He wrote that “these men even now are caught away into that age, and are taken captive, and behold all the beauties and the wonders that are done there” (17:4). The perfect Christians live, even in this word, as they are already “crowned and reigning” (17:2). Also, in this life, the Christian can taste “Christ’s judgment seat”, by entering the presence of God to judge their life continually.
Conclusion
The aim of this research was to follow the characteristics of the Christian Piety according to St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, and St. Macarius the Egyptian. By following the selected texts, it can be noticed that each type of Piety has its own characteristics. Despite this uniquely of each type, they are not against each other. They are sharing some of the basic thoughts but each of them is still having some special understandings. The story of the church seems to be a developing story that is going in the right way to fulfil His will. Each type of Piety completes the others and all of us “may grow up in all things into Him who is the head-Christ-“ (Ephesians 4:15).
Ehrman, Bart D., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers. Loeb Classical Library. 2 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
St. Macarius and Arthur James Mason. Fifty Spiritual Homilies of St. Macarius the Egyptian. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1921.
Moyer, Elgin S. Great leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago: Moody Press, 1951.
[1] Elgin S. Moyer, Great leaders of the Christian Church (Chicago: Moody Press, 1951), xii.
[2] Elgin S. Moyer is an honored teacher of Church History in Moody Bible Institute in Chicago.
[3] Bart D. Ehrman, ed. and trans., The Apostolic Fathers. Loeb Classical Library. 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 357- 401
[4] “The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians” Microsoft, Christian Classics Ethereal Library, The Apostolic Fathers, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.html
[5] St. Macarius and Arthur James Mason. Fifty Spiritual Homilies of St. Macarius the Egyptian (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1921)
[6] In the English version, each homily begins by brief but doesn’t have any title. In the Arabic version, each homily begins with the same brief with addition title.
[7] Homily 11 is titled in the Arabic version “The fire of the Spirit- Christ’s salvation for the soul”
[8] Homily 12 is titled in the Arabic version “The state of Adam before Falling and after”
[9] Homily 15 is titled in the Arabic version “The Holiness and the Piety”
[10] Homily 17 is titled in the Arabic version “The anointing of the Holy Spirit”
[11] Homily 21 is titled in the Arabic version “Spiritual warfare”
[12] Homily 32 is titled in the Arabic version “The cloth of Glory now and in the Resurrection”
[13] Homily 39 is titled in the Arabic version “Why did God give us the Bible?”
[14] Homily 48 is titled in the Arabic version “Perfect Faith in God”
[15]) M.P.1:2) means “The Martyrdom of Polycarp”. Paragraph no.1 and verse no.2
[16] (Ph.p.8) means “The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians”. Paragraph no.8
[17] “The Christian mystical life” can be defined as a special experience occurred when the soul enters in a very real sense of union with God. The reality of this sense of union with God is beyond the physical sense. Supernatural signs can be occurred in this kind of experience.
[18] In the epilogue, from the Moscow Manuscript
[19] It is very important for the Christians in the Middle East to affirm that the Early Fathers, from the first century, had a clear belief in Trinity.
[20] (12:1) means Homily 12, verse 1
[21] To have an authority on the creatures, especially the wild animals, is considered as a characteristic of the Christian Piety according to the Desert Fathers.
[22] It is significant that this concept continued to occur with the same style in the monastery of St. Macarius till now. Father Matthew the Poor, the last chief of the monastery sold every thing he had and distributed to the poor.
[23] In the Arabic version, there is an appendix which shows that the number of using of the word “church” in the fifty homilies is 21. And by studying these 21 texts, it is noticed that most of them are not talking about issues in the church. Most of them are Eschatological and some are taking about the soul as a church.
